Notes on "Beowulf"

Translations generally ripped off from Heaney.

Culture of Beowulf

Established Political Structure

Established political structure is a pre-feudal gifting warlord system built around tribes: "king" or lord is selected based in part on descent, in part on military prowess. King's job to arrange protection of tribe by setting up a comitatus of warriors to protect non-military tribe members and resources.

Economic system designed to ensure loyalty of comitatus. Warrior defeats an enemy in battle and takes armor and weapons etc from fallen enemy. Presents spoils to Lord to show loyalty. Lord rewards warrior with gifts and public praise.

Lord's economic responsibilities:

• Collect and dispense wealth,
• but not "the common land" or "people's lives"
• property ownership an exception, not yet rule
• land commonly held, even king may not distribute common land

Military Structure and Ethic

Comitatus composed of thanes trusted by the lord. Lord keeps power by gifting and effectively inspiring loyalty and cooperation. Primary metaphor for military ethic: the shield wall. Men use large shields to form a wall, protecting all of them. If trust or cooperation fail, the wall's integrity is lost, and disaster strikes.

See line 1230, when Wealhþeow says þegnas syndon geþwære ("the thanes have one purpose" or "the thanes are united").

Tribal Loyalty

Tribe is the primary measure of trust. Hrothgar trusts Beowulf because he knows Beowulf's father. When Beowulf comes through, Hrothgar's biggest reward is honorary membership in the family, and Beowulf's true loyalties and tribal relationships are reinforced immediately, when the poet refers to him as the son of Ecgþeow.

To reinforce this idea:

• Beowulf travels to Heorot with his Geat men;
• When he takes on Grendel, he does so surrounded by his Geat men; and
• When he takes on Grendel's mother, everyone but his Geat men lose faith and go home.

One leitmotif in the poem is that this ethic is failing. Consider Unferth, whose family history features fratricide. He seems to have suffered for it, but I notice he's still in the comitatus. Many hints that relatives will soon enough cease trusting one another on that basis. For instance:

[...] Þa cwom Wealhþeo forð gan under gyldnum beage, þær þa godan twegen sæton suhterge-fæderan; þa gyt wæs hiera sib ætgædere, æghwylc oðrum trywe.

[...] Wealhtheow came to sit in her gold crown between two good men, uncle and nephew, each one of whom still trusted the other;

Value of Continence

Because reputation is so important, boasting must be credible. Because cooperative bravery is so important, no warrior can afford to undermine cohesion or morale of unit by expressing inappropriate fear. These together lead to a behavioral code that rewards repression of fear. Body, particularly breast, conceived as a container for fears, as-yet-unrealized ambitions, secrets, etc. (cf "The Wanderer") -- much as buildings contain comitatus. Keeping emotions and secrets inside protects everyone as bldg fortifies those it contains.

Beowulf and his men greeted by Danish coast-guard, Beowulf "unlocks his word horde". Words analogous to treasure, here. They should be protected/contained so that you can give them away in appropriate circumstances. Similar ritual with the messenger (Wulfgar) and then with Hrothgar. Beowulf says different things to each of them, based on requirements of the diplomatic situation.

Speech very formal, formulaic, ritual --> helps ensure only appropriate thoughts expressed and only at appropriate times. Silence, continence, equals loyalty.

If we don't consider Unferth the Danish anadvocate, Unferth is a bad thane: his family is marked by fratricide, and he doesn't control his words -- accusation of Beowulf most undiplomatic. Beowulf with relatively good humor, points out Unferth's basic lack of military prowess.

Even now we talk about the integrity of a container. If it leaks, it lacks integrity. Integrity means containing what should be contained.

Structure of the Poem

1. Grendel -- episode explores confrontation with the other in company with the comitatus -- cooperating, shield-wall, etc
2. Grendel's Mother -- episode explores economic implications of outsider's death -- mother tries to extract a blood-price, but those laws do not protect her family of exiles
3. Dragon -- episode explores the decline of the ethic of bravery and cooperation, the consequent decline of the gifting culture -- failure of the shield-wall in the face of personified greed and laziness/cowardice causes/establishes end of comitatus/warlord system.

Section I: Grendel

Summary

Genealogy identifies Hrothgar, Spear-Dane ring-giver, as heir to Scyld Scefing, legendary foundling founder of the race. After significant military success, Hrothgar commands construction of a lavish mead-hall, Heorot. Hrothgar and comitatus celebrate in Heorot, boasting and hearing bardic tales, some from Genesis.

Genealogy identifies Grendel as descendent of Cain, exiled from human race. Jealous of companionship and prosperity, breaks into Heorot and kills several thanes (warriors, roughly equivalent to knights in feudalism? certainly hand-picked and favored with gifts and privileges by Hrothgar). Danes unable to defend themselves, systematically slain for 12 years (lunar years = months?).

Beowulf, a Geat with family-friendship ties to Hrothgar, hears their troubles and goes to help out (this has happy side effect of significant boasting-opportunities). Geat-Dane diplomacy --> Beowulf and band will take on Grendel, Beowulf will kill him with bare hands since weapons have failed.

Grendel attacks, Beowulf grapples and rips off Grendel's arm. Grendel limps off to die, and Beowulf mounts arm as trophy above door to Heorot.

Celebration includes gift-giving and tale-telling, including thematically related digressions.

Analysis

Heorot -- The ability to build Heorot implies a high level of military success. The Danes are strong enough to defend themselves, and do not have to move anymore. This allows a shift (not mentioned in the poem, but reasonable) to farming. New prosperity -- conspicuous at minimum in Heorot -- makes them a juicier target. Building Heorot is therefore extremely bold.

Early description of Heorot anticipates it being burned down after a crisis of family. As culture begins more and more defining nationality by location, importance of loyalty to family decreases. Problems with in-laws get more intense, causing tragedy. Poem anticipates ambiguous value of cultural shift even while celebrating primary symbol of that shift.

That Grendel attacks them within Heorot suggests a distrust of architecture as well. Not only does Heorot fail to protect the warriors, it attracts the attack.

Grendel -- Descended from Cain (and, we presume, Lilith, the only woman not included directly in God's commanded to shun him and his race). Monstrous, a giant, b/c descended from monsters and giants. Shunned by men because of events in Genesis.

Isolation and Exile are worst conceivable fate for a member of the comitatus, since cooperation and companionship are the foundation of the gifting/warlord economic and military structures (cf "The Wanderer").

Naturally, Grendel jealous of what the celebrating warriors have: prosperity and companionship. Naturally, Grendel resents that they celebrate in a way that explicitly recalls the reasons for his own exile. Naturally, Grendel wants to show them that they are not so strong after all. The poem does not explore these issues in terms sympathetic to Grendel, but readers can. Poem insists that Grendel is monstrous.

Grendel valuable for episode because he focuses the story on "us" and "them" -- a distinction at the heart of the established culture.

Digression About Sigemund and Fitela

Beowulf and his men compared to Sigemund, who without Uncle Fitela slays a dragon and becomes king. In same digression, King Heremod is betrayed and replaced by Sigemund.

Digression about Wulfings

Feud between Geats and Wulfings in which Ecgtheow (Beowulf's father) kills Wulfing Heatholaf. Ecgtheow exiled to Danes, becomes friends with Hrothgar who pays a blood price to end the feud.

Digression establishes blood-price system, and explains relationship between Beowulf and Hrothgar.

Celebration

1. Celebrate, congratulate, and reward Beowulf socially
2. Repair damage to Heorot
3. Feast and "monetary" rewards for all, starting with Beowulf
4. Music

Digression about Hildeburh

Themes: limitations of diplomacy Role of Queen Hildeburh parallel to Wealhþeow, described as diplomat and cupbearer. Wealhþeow described as exemplary queen. Hildeburh unable to prevent calamity for her family, either on Frisian or or Danish side. Alliance by Marriage Family important, but marriage cannot create comradeship. Hildeburh's marriage does not prevent war, because Jutes are not Danes. Comitatus succeeds because the warriors are friends who look out for each other. Beowulf accepted by Danes because his father is friends with Hrothgar and because he has a good reputation. When Hrothgar places Beowulf among his own sons, Beowulf is symbolically a member of Danish royal family, but his actual heritage confirmed immediately: "Beowulf maþelode, bearn Ecgþeowes:" (Beowulf spoke, the son of Ecgþeow:) Future Trouble for Danes In the end, Hengest, leader of Danes, breaks the treaty. Lots of places where poem hints that family disloyalty will create disaster for Danes someday.	Plot Hildeburh married to Finn, should create peace between Jutes and Danes. Battle between Danes and Jutes in Friesland (Frisian/Jute land) results in deaths of Hildeburh's son and her brother Hnæf, king of Danes. Finn's troops decimated. Treaty: Finn makes room for Danes through winter, pays equal gifts to Danes and Jutes, punishes obnoxious Jute behavior to Danes. Hengest grows increasingly bitter over winter, receives legendary sword from Hunlafing and encouragement from Oslaf and Guðlaf. Hengest kills remaining Jutes including Finn, takes booty home with Hildeburh (a Danish princess).	Who's Who in The Digression Name Notes Finn Frisian/Jute King Hildeburh Danish princess married to Finn Hnæf Danish King Hoc Father of Hildeburh and Hnæf Hengest Danish hero takes over when Hnæf dies in battle with Finn Focwald Father of Finn Hunlafing Dane, gives legendary sword to Hengest Guthlaf/Oslaf Danish brothers, accuse Finn of ambush, wrongful death of king, etc. Related to Hulafing? "laf" root in names
		Genealogy

Section II: Grendel's Mother

Summary

While the Danes celebrate and repair Heorot, Grendel's mother grows increasingly angry and emerges from the mere to seek revenge for the death of her son. She busts into Heorot in the night and takes exactly one life, Æschere, a man beloved by Hrothgar. Hrothgar asks Beowulf to deal with her, and Beowulf agrees. Unferth gives him a named sword to fight her with.

Beowulf dives into the mere, but Grendel's mother grabs him before he can get to her. She hauls him to her lair and they fight. He can't kill her with Unferth's sword (because of the grapple pinning the sword?), so he drops it and wrestles her for a while. Eventually, when it seems pretty bad for him, he sees a giant's sword, which he uses to kill her. Her blood corrodes the sword, but he keeps the jeweled hilt. He brings this and Grendel's head as trophies back to Hrothgar.

Analysis

Grendel's Mother -- She appears directly after a speech by Wealhþeow: invite comparison? She is also called brim-wylf, 'wolf of the deep': comparison to Beowulf himself?

Issue of family and otherness linked. In exchange for the life of her son, she takes only one thane, beloved of Hrothgar. This is a blood price, but those traditions do not protect her kind. She has the mark of Cain. The economic and blood traditions of this culture do not extend protection to the truly other.

She is less civilized than the Danes: her body is described as a flæsc-homan or 'house of the flesh'. Her carapace, which protects her from most weapons, poss including Unferth's sword, is basically architectural -- she is nomadic and bestial, carries her house with her, like a turtle. This also reinforces the idea that buildings are for protection whatever else they do.

Her role calls the whole economic system of the poem into explicit question by pointing out that the system does not provide equal protection, that it does not provide a method of dealing with the outsider, with the truly alien. She doesn't understand the blood-price properly, and she doesn't understand that it doesn't apply to her. When Beowulf comes after her, she realizes her mistake and seeks what she can have: revenge.

Unferth -- Possibly a Danish anadvocate, but his honor is questionable. His family is spotted by fratricide, he is rude to guests (Beowulf), and has no response when Beowulf accuses him to his face of cowardice ("And who have you fought?"). By giving Beowulf a sword, he re-enters the gifting culture, but it's unclear Unferth has the social position to be giving stuff to Beowulf -- is he a thane offering treasure to the Lord, or a Lord rewarding his subject? Furthermore, the sword, like Unferth, is ineffectual.

Section III: The Dragon

Summary

Beowulf and his men return to the land of the Geats, and Beowulf presents the treasures he received from Hrothgar to Hygelac. Much rejoicing about the triumphant return of a missed friend etc. Eventually Hygelac dies in battle, and his wife asks Beowulf to be new Lord because her son is too young. Beowulf insists that Hygelac's son should be Hygelac's heir, and functions as an advisor instead. Son dies, and Beowulf becomes Lord. Fifty years prosperity etc, then a slave steals a jeweled goblet from a sleeping dragon, which becomes irate when it wakes. It begins to terrorize the countryside. At this point, Geats are no longer really mobile. Beowulf resolves to kill the dragon. He goes to the dragon's lair, guided by the reluctant slave/thief, where he faces the dragon without success. He asks for help, and only Wyglaf of all his thanes comes forward. Together they slay the dragon, but Beowulf takes a mortal wound, poisoned by the dragon's bite. Wyglaf brings some of the dragon's horde for Beowulf to look on as he dies. He scolds all the other thanes, predicts the end of the Geat kingdom when other tribes hear of their weakness, and arranges Beowulf's funeral. Much lamenting.

Analysis

The Dragon -- If the shield wall of the comitatus represents the warrior ethic, the dragon represents its opposite.

The dragon

• is alone, the worst fate imaginable to a warrior of the comitatus;
• hordes treasure rather than using it to secure loyalty and reward puissance; and
• spews death out of its mouth rather than containing its fire.

Furthermore, the dragon is waked by a thief, that is, by the breakdown of the gifting system. It furthermore acquired its horde by finding it rather than earning. Horde actually the last relics of a dead nation. This episode points to what happens when the old system breaks down.

Queen Hygd -- Like Wealhþeow, a good example of queenhood (and queenhood is our only real view of women in the poem). She "weaves peace" rather than judging or punishing transgression. She is cupbearer and diplomat. By serving wine to the comitatus and diplomatic visitors, she can keep track of their conversations, enabling her diplomatic function.

Queen Modryþ is a bad queen, because she incarcerated, tortured, and killed men she perceived had insulted her. She should instead "weave peace." Her wrongdoing ends with her marriage to Offa, the best king ever, anywhere.

The Funeral -- Beowulf's funeral is obviously supposed to be compared to Scyld's. The poet even uses the same phrase to describe the two men: þæt wæs god cyning!(ll 11 and 2306). The implication is that Beowulf is the stuff of legends. The Geats build a monument in his honor, designed to help ships find their way. The mourning woman worries about her future, by extension the future of the Geats. The death of Beowulf is symbolic of the end of the Geat nation. King = country. But Beowulf becomes symbolic of more than just the Geat culture. He comes to represent the gifting warrior culture generally. The decay of the warrior ethic brings about the end of the Geats. It isn't Beowulf's death that dooms the Geats, it's their own weakness and cowardice in the face of greed, incontinence of integrity, and solitude as represented by the dragon. That is, they flee rather than confronting the un-warrior-like qualities present in their country. This weakness causes their downfall.

General Notes

It's tempting to compare this to Malory, in which the conflicting traditions of feudal knighthood, courtly love, and Christianity lead to the loss of Camelot. Explore.

The failure of the warlord culture is timed to suggest that the shift from a lifestyle that demands movement to one that allows permanent buildings causes it. Prosperity allows Hrothgar to command construction of Heorot; Grendel is jealous of prosperity; 12 years of death. Devastation ends when Beowulf, symbolic of traditional nomadic warrior culture (he goes where he is needed and brings his tribe with him; he speaks only when appropriate; he is generous, brave, and when appropriate submits to higher authorities) intervenes. Beowulf himself dies only after settling in as lord of a tribe that stays put and has conspicuous permanent buildings.

Notes by Line Number